Date Posted: Monday, January 19, 2004

Edited by Omer Ibn Abdullah

Islam and War

God allowed the Muslims to fight in self-defense and to end persecution. The Muhajireen felt justified in raiding Qurayshi caravans because the Quraysh had confiscated their property, but they also realized that protecting Muslims against apostasy was a much higher duty in the eyes of God and His Prophet (pbuh). This is borne out by the following incident. Abdullah ibn Jahsh al-Asadi had been ordered to lead a sortie. Receiving sealed orders that were to be opened only after 2 days on the road, he learned that his mission was to observe the Quraysh’s movements. However, his companions were free to choose if they wanted to accompany him on the mission. Accordingly, two of them decided to travel on their own. While scouting, al-Asadi encountered a Qurayshi donkey caravan. Considering it an opportune moment, they seized it to compensate for their confiscated property. The caravan leader was killed, and his two assistants surrendered. When the sortie members led the caravan into Madinah and offered a share to the Prophet’s fund, Muhammad (pbuh) scolded them and refused the offering.

The Quraysh used this incident to launch a propaganda campaign accusing the Muslims of violating the sanctity of the holy months. The Jews readily joined in the chorus. This situation was solved only when God revealed that while fighting during the holy months was a grave misdeed, an even greater wrong was to block people from the way of God, violate the sanctity of the holy mosque, and to expel people from its precincts (Surat al-Baqarah, 2:217). Thus empowered, the Prophet (pbuh) accepted the offering and arranged a prisoner exchange.

Given that Islam considers fitnah (sedition) a greater crime than murder, Muslims have a right and a duty to fight it. The Qur'an, which declares that that there is no compulsion in religion (Surat al-Baqarah, 2:256, 190), also admonishes Muslims to fight in the way God against those who attack them. However, they should not commit any aggression, for God He “does not love the aggressor” (Surat al-Ikhlas, 112:1-3). Surat al-Baqarah 2:213, which was revealed after this incident, clearly defined jihad in the following terms: Muslims should fight those who try to turn other Muslims away from Islam and seek to prevent them from traveling on His Path. Thus, Islam considers war as the duty of defending freedom of thought and opinion. As a result, Islam regulates war by giving specific guidelines as to when it can be initiated and ended, as well as how it should be conducted.

Such concern stands in stark contrast to the Christian concept of war. Christian missionaries and Christians in general proclaim that their religion does not permit fighting. However, history tells a different story: From the dawn of Christianity until today, great violence has been unleashed throughout the world in the name of Jesus Christ. For example, Christian Europe launched the Crusades, and European Christians set out for the Middle East to fight and destroy, to maim and kill. The argument that these actions took place in medieval times, while Europe was in the Dark Ages, does not hold, for in 1918, after occupying Jerusalem, Lord Allenby declared that the Crusades were finally complete.

The Battle of Badr

The al-Asadi expedition represents a crossroads in Islamic policy, for after this the Muslims wer allowed to fight under specific conditions and for higher goals. This event also changed the Muslims’ policy toward the Quraysh, for now they began to think seriously about retrieving their confiscated property. The Quraysh, however, saw this as an opportunity to stir up the whole peninsula against Muhammad (pbuh) and his followers for violating the sanctity of the holy months.

Given this emerging situation, Muhammad (pbuh) realized that it was futile to wait for Quraysh to reach an understanding. So, during the fall of 624, to check out the Qurayshi caravan going to Sham, which had goods belonging to all of the Makkan traders, he mobilized his forces at Badr to meet it. The Quraysh also had done their scouting: Abu Sufyan, the caravan leader, sent a messenger to Makkah for reinforcements, as he himself was lightly guarded. This appeal was readily heard, and Abu Jahl, the Muslims’ staunchest enemy, set about organizing a strike force. The Makkans’ spirit was further kindled when their rival, the Abu Kinanah tribe, agreed to cooperate with them. Soon, the entire city was stirred up and every Makkan noble joined the force.

Before leaving for Badr, the Prophet (pbuh) appointed an acting governor and an imam in his stead. His entire cavalry consisted of 70 camels, each of which was shared among three or four men, and his army comprised 305 men: 83 Muhajireen, 61 Ansar from the Aws tribe, and the rest from the Khazraj. They marched briskly in order not to miss the caravan. Upon reaching and encamping at Dhafiran, they learned that a Qurayshi force had marched out to protect the caravan. This changed the situation, and Muhammad (pbuh) consulted his lieutenants, especially the Ansar, for his alliance with them only obliged them to defend him. However, the Ansar agreed unanimously to stand with him and fight the unbelievers.

The Muslim scouts reported that the Quraysh had about 1,000 soldiers and that all of their leaders were present. Muhammad (pbuh), viewing this as being faced by all of the leading sons of Makkah, called upon his followers to be firm in their resolve and faith. Meanwhile Abu Sufyan, learning that the Muslims were waiting in ambush, changed his route. This news soon reached Muhammad (pbuh), who again consulted his followers, for now that the caravan had escaped there would be no material reward, only fighting. At this time, God revealed that He wills that the truth be supreme, that justice be done, and that the unbelievers be scattered (Surat al-Anfal, 8:7). The Muslims, now even more firm and united in their resolve to fight, camped near a well, built a trough and a booth for the Prophet (pbuh), and devised a plan of retreat that would ensure his safety.

The Quraysh, now that their caravan was safe, also had to decide whether to risk a fight. While Abu Sufyan advised withdrawal, Abu Jahl reasoned that any withdrawal could be interpreted as a sign of weakness and fear. Thus divided, the Banu Zuhrah clan returned to Makkah and the others remained where they were. Soon, the Qurayshi scouts informed their commanders that the Muslim force consisted of only 300 poorly provisioned men and had no terrain in which they could hide. Some Qurayshis still advised withdrawal; Abu Jahl pressed for war. This shattered all chances of peace, and a Qurayshi named Ibn al-Asad rushed out to destroy the Muslims’ water trough. Hamzah ibn al-Muttalib stopped him and with a blow that cut off his leg and with another that killed him. The battle was soon engaged.

Muhammad (pbuh) organized his ranks and, seeing his rag-tag force, turned his face toward Makkah and sought God’s help. Blessed with a vision of victory, he told his men that whoever died during the battle would enter Paradise. Muslim morale was very high, for they knew that they were fighting for a higher purpose. At this time, Surat al-Anfal 8:65-66 wa revealed, stating that 20 steadfast men could overcome 200 of the enemy, and that 100 of the former could overcome 1,000 of the latter. This news caused the Musims’ bravery and determination to soar.

The Muslims sought to finish off the Makkan leadership, for these people had directed and carried out the anti-Muslim policies of harassment and torture. The fighting was intense. Muhammad (pbuh) stayed alongside his men, and, at one point took a handful of dust and threw it at an advancing Qurayshi unit to encourage them to even greater bravery. The Muslims’ resolve forced the enemy to flee the battlefield, and soon the Muslims began taking prisoners-of-war. In the midst of battle, Muhammad (pbuh) was careful about whom to punish. He pardoned the Banu Hashim because of the protection that they had given to the Muslims, as well as those Makkans who had shown kindness toward the Muslims.

The Battle of Badr established Muslim power throughout the Arabian Peninsula, initiated the movement toward Arab unity under the Prophet’s (pbuh) leadership, and, more importantly, laid the foundations of the Islamic state. After the battle was over, the Muslims buried the enemy dead, all of whom had been abandoned by their compatriots. In the midst of this, Muhammad (pbuh) sat and pondered the future. Calling out to the Quraysh dead, he asked them whether they had found what their Lord had promised them, for he had found what God had promised him.

The victorious Muslims could not decide how to share the spoils of war. God soon revealed Surat al-Anfal 8:41, which stated that one-fifth was to be used for God’s work, His Prophet (pbuh), and the needy, and that the rest should be divided among the survivors according to a formula established by the Prophet (pbuh). Thus, he divided it among the survivors, the heirs of those who had been martyred during the battle, and those who had been assigned to stay in Madinah.

The victorious force returned home, announcing that the leaders of inequity had been defeated and killed. The city’s Jews and idolaters did not receive this news enthusiastically, and tried to convince themselves and the Muslims that it was false. The victorious Muslims soon proved their claims and celebrated their victory. However, the celebration was marred by the death of the Prophet’s (pbuh) daughter, Ruqayyah, the wife of Uthman ibn Affan.

The next day, the prisoners arrived and Muhammad (pbuh) assigned them to various families. Consulting his Companions about what should be done with them, Abu Bakr suggested that they be sent home after paying a ransom. However, Umar ibn al-Khattab argued that since they were enemies of God, had persecuted the Muslims, and had forced them to migrate, they should be executed. Withdrawing to his room, the Prophet (pbuh) prayed for God’s guidance and was informed that the prisoners should not be detained or mistreated, but rather exchanged or ransomed by the enemy (Surat al-Anfal, 8:67)

Some Orientalists have pointed out that the execution of two prisoners indicates Islam’s bloodthirsty nature. However, this decision was taken in the heat of battle. Moreover, both men were avowed enemies of the Muslims, all of the other prisoners were treated properly, and were returned to the enemy upon the payment of ransom – even though this very enemy had confiscated Muslim property. Those poor prisoners who could not raise any ransom were released.

News of the Qurayshi defeat and the death of many of its leaders rocked Makkah. The Makkans could not believe what had happened. Abu Lahab, a hard-line anti-Muslim, was so shocked that he died. The Quraysh, trying to show a brave face, decided not to mourn their dead or to exchange their prisoners. However, a few days later, a deal over the prisoners was worked out and, when all of the prisoners finally returned to Makkah, the whole city observed a month-long period of mourning. Despite this defeat, such Makkans as Abu Sufyan could not reconcile themselves to a Muslim victory and vowed revenge.

Between Badr and Uhud

The victory of Badr caused heartburn among Madinah’s non-Muslims, especially the Jews. They were very worried that a person who had come to the city as a refugee only 2 years ago was now the city’s leader and source of power. They began once again to scheme, this time starting poetic duels to harass the Muslims. Now it seemed that the battleground had moved to Madinah. But this battle differed from its counterpart in Makkah, for it was directed not against Muhammad’s (pbuh) call from God, but against his power, influence, and success. As the Makkans had done, these enemies also devised ways to assassinate Muhammad (pbuh).

The Muslims, who had feared Madinah’s non-Muslims, now felt confident enough to challenge any of these detractors of Islam and so some individual Muslims took it upon themselves to kill some of the most obnoxious of them. While such events increased the Jews’ anxiety, they continued to taunt and attack the Muslims. In one incident, the Jews of the Banu Qaynuqa clan publicly humiliated a Muslim woman. One Muslim sought to avenge her honor, and soon a general skirmish developed. Muhammad (pbuh) asked the Jews to stop such attacks and to observe the covenant’s terms, but they mocked him and refused to do as he asked. Having no other option, the Muslims blockaded the clan’s quarter for 15 days and gradually forced them to surrender. A number of them became prisoners. After consulting his Companions, Muhammad (pbuh) decided not to execute any of them; rather, he ordered all of them to leave Madinah. The Jews, considering the situation and their protector’s defeat, resettled in an area close to Sham.

The expulsion of the Banu Qaynuqa considerably weakened the Jews’ influence, for the other Jews lived far away in Khaybar and Umm al-Qur’a. Critics have blamed the Muslims for blowing this incident all out of proportion. However, the situation was rife with tension, the Jews themselves were fanning the fire, and the incident simply ignited this smoldering fire.

The month following the Jews’ expulsion was peaceful, and the non-Muslims became more subdued. But Abu Sufyan, still intent on avenging Makkah’s defeat, once again ventured outside Makkah to show that the Quraysh were still a power. Secretly leading a force at night, he attacked al-Urayd, near Madinah, and killed its sole resident and his servant. Satisfied, he withdrew. However, the Muslims quickly learned of this attack and set out in pursuit. Although they started late, they soon got so close to Abu Sufyan that he was forced to abandon his supplies and equipment. His disheveled appearance upon reaching Makkah did not enhance the people’s respect for him.

The news of the Muslim victory at Badr, the expulsion of the Banu Qaynuqa, and the flight of Abu Sufyan soon spread and created a new respect for the Muslims, who until then had been considered no more than upstarts. The Qurayshi defeat engendered feelings of insecurity among the tribes living along the trade route to Sham, for they thought that an alternative trade route would be devised – one that would leave them without business. At the same time, the Muslims’ victory at Badr caused these tribes to fear Muslim power. Nevertheless, they decided to engage the Muslims. Receiving news of this latest challenge, Muhammad (pbuh) led a force to meet them. Upon learning of this move, the tribal force fled, leaving behind some 500 camels that were rounded up and taken to Madinah.

Perhaps this report did not reach the Banu Sulaym tribe, who also attempted to launch an attack. But upon learning that the Muslim army was coming to meet them, they withdrew in panic. A few other tribes went through the very same experience. Meanwhile, although Muhammad (pbuh) concluded another covenant with the Jews, they still plotted against him and the Muslims.

Given that Makkah was a trading economy, any loss of the trade route was a major irritant, for the traders depended on Sham for their summer trade and on Abyssinia for their winter trade. The Makkans sought to bypass the Muslims’ blockade by routing a caravan through Iraq. This attempt failed, for the Muslims found out about it and then intercepted and routed the caravan. This loss only heightened the Qurayshi thirst for vengeance. Muhammad (pbuh) continued his preparations and readiness.

During this time, Hafshah, a daughter of his close confidant Umar ibn al-Khattab, was widowed. Muhammad (pbuh) married her. Earlier, he had married Aishah, a daughter Abu Bakr, another close confidant. He also gave his daughter Fatimah in marriage to his cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib. When his daughter Ruqayyah (Uthman ibn Affan’s wife) died, the Prophet (pbuh) gave another one of his daughters, Umm Kulthum, to his widowed son-in-law and close friend. These marriages brought him even closer to some of his beloved friends and family, and also showed the young community how to meet such social needs as what to do with widows.

The Battle of Uhud and Its Aftermath

The debacles of Badr and other campaigns weighed heavily on the Quraysh. Seeking to avenge these defeats, the Makkan notables raised funds, recruited the top poets for the propaganda war, brought soldiers from as far away as Abyssinia, and took their women along with them to inspire the men in battle. Their army consisted of 700 heavily armored men, 200 horses, and 3,000 camels. Abbas ibn al-Muttalib, the Prophet’s (pbuh), informed him of the Makkans’ preparations, for although he was not a Muslim, he had positive feelings for his nephew because of the latter’s gracious behavior toward him.

The Makkan army camped at Mount Uhud, five miles from Madinah. Muhammad (pbuh), always well informed of his enemy’s movements, sent scouts out to assess the situation. The Quraysh inched forward and were finally at Madinah’s gates. At this juncture, the Prophet called a general assembly and asked the Muslims to prepare to defend their city at all costs. He consulted his lieutenants and other experienced residents. The older ones favored fortifying themselves in the city and defending it from within, while the younger ones, who had not fought at Badr, wanted to go out and engage the enemy.

On Friday, the Prophet (pbuh) led the Muslims in prayer and reminded them that victory would come only through patience and proper preparation. After the mid-afternoon prayer (`asr), he put on his armor and came of his house. This settled all arguments, for as it was clear that he intended to go out to meet the enemy in battle. The Prophet (pbuh) led his army of just 700 men toward Uhud, ready to meet the enemy’s 3,000 soldiers. In keeping with his policy of not allying himself with any non-Muslims during a battle, he declined to include a Jewish tribe allied with the Ibn Ubbay clan. So, the clan returned to Madinah with its Jewish allies. The Muslims reached Uhud toward morning and took positions on higher ground. Archers, entrusted with guarding the rear positions, were told to stand firm and to take offensive action upon sighting any enemy movement.

The enemy arranged itself in two rows, with the women running between the lines drumming and singing to get their men into high spirits. The Qurayshi chiefs exhorted their men avenge all past defeats. The Quraysh launched the first foray, and the small Muslim army responded with great valor. Among the martyrs was Hamzah ibn al-Muttalib, the hero of Badr.

The battle of Uhud (625) was also a test, for some of the Muslims’ hearts were only lukewarm when it came to Islam. They fought valiantly, but more for worldly ends than for the cause of Islam. However, the true believers were steadfast in the battle and soon routed the enemy. The fall of the Makkan flag signaled the Quraysh’s defeat, and the statue they had brought along to bless them fell off the camel’s back and shattered. The Quraysh’s fate was sealed.

However, when the Quraysh began to retreat, some of the Muslims focused on getting some of the booty for themselves instead of properly and fully routing the enemy. Even the archers posted to defend the rear left their positions and joined in this activity. This disarray allowed the Quraysh to regroup and take a strategic hilltop. From there, they mounted another attack and inflicted quite a bit of damage on the Muslim ranks. In the ensuing melee, someone cried out that the Prophet (pbuh) had been killed. This only exacerbated the Muslims’ disorder and reinvigorated the Makkans. In fact, the Prophet (pbuh) had only been hit by a stone. His lip was cut, a tooth was broken, and he fell down.

The Prophet (pbuh) and his men began retreating toward Mount Uhud. This was a cause of great joy to Abu Sufyan, who had sworn to avenge the Makkans’ defeat at Badr. This setback also made the Jews happy, as well as the Munafiqeen (the Hypocrites, who had joined Islam for their own reasons), and the idolaters. The next day, the Prophet (pbuh) regrouped his troops and ordered them to attack. Abu Sufyan heard that the Muslims were planning a fresh attack, but this time with a huge force. This made the Quraysh think twice, and, after three days of camping out, they withdrew to Makkah.

The victory at Uhud raised Abu Sufyan’s stature in Makkah. On the other hand, the Madinans derided the defeated Muslims some of the nearby tribes even sought to defy and fight them. This turn of events made Muhammad (pbuh) intent upon recapturing the Muslims’ preeminence. Upon learning that Tulayhah and Salamah, the sons of Khuwalid and the leaders of Banu Asad, were inciting tribesmen to invade and attack Madinah, he ordered Abu Salamah to march against them. The enemy was routed, and some of the Muslims’ prestige was restored. Later, when the Prophet (pbuh) learned that Khalid ibn Sufyan ibn Nubayh al-Hudhali was turning the people against the Muslims, he sent Abdullah ibn Unays to gather intelligence. This man killed Khalid, thereby silencing the Banu Lihyan tribe.

The Hudhayli tribe sought revenge through trickery: They asked the Prophet (pbuh) to dispatch Muslims to teach them about Islam, but intended to arrest them and sell them as slaves in Makkah. The Prophet (pbuh) sent six teachers. They resisted their arrest at al-Raji, against a much larger force, and only two survived. They were captured and sold as slaves in Makkah. Eventually one was executed by the sword and the other one was crucified. Ironically, none of the Orientalists have mentioned the treacherous execution of these two innocent Muslims.

Abu Bara, a Najdi leader, asked the Prophet (pbuh) to send teachers to his region. At first, the Prophet (pbuh) demurred but later agreed to send al-Mundhir ibn Amr and some other Muslims. These Muslims were ambushed at Bir Maunuh and killed in Banu Amir territory. The setbacks of al-Raji and Bir Maunah elated the Jews and the Munafiqeen of Madinah.

The Prophet was fully aware of their plots and of the loss of prestige caused by such events. Therefore, he sought for a way to make them betray their intentions. Taking a delegation to the Jews of Banu al-Nadir at al-Quba, he asked for funds to help pay the bloodwit to the Banu Amir, whose people had been mistakenly killed by a Muslim. The Jews feigned agreement. However, the Prophet (pbuh) soon sensed that a person had entered the room with dangerous motives, and so excused himself and told his Companions to carry on the negotiations. Thus, he foiled a murder plot aimed at him and sensed that these traitorous people could engender civil strife in Madinah. Since the Jews had violated the covenant, he sent them a notice to vacate their territory.

Instead of complying, the Jews prepared for war and found an ally in Abdullah ibn Ubayy, who promised to bring 2,000 Jews and Arabs under his command. The Jews debated the ultimatum, and their leader Huyayy ibn Akhtab sent a response to the Prophet (pbuh) that they would not move. After waiting for 10 days, the Muslims decided to enforce the ultimatum through force. The battle continued for 20 days, with the Jews playing hide-and-seek anxiously waiting for Ibn Ubayy or any other Arab tribe to come to their aid. Finally, they made peace and were allowed to settle in Khaybar or Adhirat in Sham. The move was so significant that God revealed Surat al-Hashr on this occasion.

The event also led to administrative changes. Until now, the Prophet had employed Jews. For example, his secretary was a Jew who could write in Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic. He replaced him with a young Madinan named Zayd ibn Thabit, and told him to learn the two languages. Years later, Abu Bakr told this same Zayd to collect the Qur'an, and, during the caliphate of Uthman, he also supervised the collection and preparation of the final text.

Now that peace and security reigned, the Munafiqeen became quiet and the Muslims prospered. This continued until the first anniversary of the Battle of Uhud, when the Prophet (pbuh) remembered Abu Sufyan’s challenge to fight the Muslims again at Badr. That year, a drought struck and caused Abu Sufyan to seek to delay his challenge. However, he sent his representative to circulate tales of the big preparations he was making to fight the Muslims. Such reports caused some Muslims to become so despondent that the Prophet (pbuh) had to scold them. This admonition had the intended effect, and the Muslims readied for battle and marched to Badr. Abu Sufyan marched out with 2,000 men, but 2 days later withdrew to Makkah. The Prophet (pbuh) waited for 8 days to see if the Makkans would return. While waiting, the Muslims started trading in the area and made a tidy profit. It was on this occasion, God revealed Surat Al `Imran 3:168-75 that, among other things, admonished Muslims: “Do not fear your enemies, therefore, but fear Me if you are true believers.”

This second encounter at Badr was an implicit victory for the Muslims, for the Quraysh had failed to scare them into submission. In fact, they had withdrawn while the Muslims showed their readiness to fight. Nevertheless, the Muslims remained vigilant. In the meantime, news reached the Prophet (pbuh) that a group of the Ghatafan in Najd were rallying to fight the Muslims. Gathering a force together, he surprised this new enemy. So successful was his challenge that the enemy did not even come out to meet him; rather, they retreated and abandoned all of their supplies. This was followed by the Dawmat al-Jandal campaign, an oasis located between Hijaz and Sham and midway between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The tribes who were attacking Muslim caravans simply vanished upon seeing the Muslim force. The location of this region indicates the extent of Muslim political and military power.

After these campaigns, the Prophet (pbuh) returned to Madinah, where he continued to organize Madinan society.

The Prophet’s (pbuh) Wives

During this time of relative peace, Muhammad (pbuh) married Zaynab bint Khuzaymah, Umm Salamah bint Umayyah ibn al-Mughirah, and Zaynab bint Jahsh (after she divorced his adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah).

The Prophet’s (pbuh) marriages have been the subject of fanciful tales by some well-meaning but misinformed Muslim authors. For their part, Orientalists have used these works without question. Contrary to speculations and accusations, his marriages were not based on lust but had their social aspects. For example, some Orientalists and even some Muslim authors have offered some speculative stories about his marriage to Zaynab, stories that both contradict his character and his thought and action. He married Khadijah, 15 years his senior, and remained married to her until her death 28 years later. Even as a bachelor, he had remained pure and upright. In fact, before he married Zaynab he was already married to five women. The purpose behind such a marriage was not to satisfy his supposed lust, but to break a traditional Arab taboo that an adopted child had the same status as a child born to the parents.

After Khadijah’s death, he married Sawdah bint Zamah, the widow of Sakran ibn Amr ibn Abd Shams. No account describes her as a great beauty or as rich; rather, she was the widow of a martyred Companion and had suffered much for her faith. By marrying her, he set an example of marrying widows, especially those whose husbands had been martyred. Similarly, his marriages to Zaynab bint Khuzaymah and Umm Salamah bint Umayyah ibn al-Mughirah had social connotations. The former was the widow of Ubaydah ibn al-Harith ibn al-Muttalib, who had been martyred at Badr. She was in the prime of her age, and died only a year or two after her marriage to Muhammad (pbuh). Similarly, Umm Salamah’s husband Abu Salamah had died as a result of wounds received at Uhud. An elderly women with many children to support, she accepted his proposal. But even before he proposed marriage to her, he had supported the children of his martyred Companion.

An objective analysis of Muhammad (pbuh)’s life shows that he both stood for and recommended monogamy. This is clear from his life with Khadijah and the Qur’anic verses that allow Muslim men to have four wives, but only under strict conditions: “You will not be able to do justice to more than one wife however much you may try. And if you must marry another wife, do not incline excessively to one and leave the other like a thing suspended” (Surat al-Nisa’, 4:129). These verses were revealed 8 years after his migration to Madinah, after the Prophet (pbuh) had married all of his wives. Thus, his marriages were arranged before the limit was imposed.

While advising monogamy, the Qur’an considered the needs of some but highlighted the conditions of polygamous arrangements. In short, monogamy is preferred. In exceptional circumstances, however, when social needs require it, polygamy can be practiced – but only within certain rather demanding limits. When we see some of the social problems in the developed countries today, where polygamy has been outlawed, the wisdom behind such a law can be easily understood.

The innuendos and accusations of certain Orientalists concerning Muhammad’s (pbuh) marriage to Zaynab bint Jahsh can best be understood by examining the full context. This lady was his first cousin, whom he had known since her birth and who had been married to Zayd, his former slave and adopted son. If he was so attracted to her, as some of these accounts claim, why did he let her marry a former slave, especially when the prevalent custom did not approve of such marriages: Zaynab was a member of Makkah’s upper class.

This marriage served to remind the Muslims of God’s command that what was important to Him was the individual’s virtue and piety, rather than birth or some other man-made artificial distinction. Later on, when they found each other incompatible and, despite the Prophet’s (pbuh) advice to keep together, decided to divorce, another Arab custom was shattered. Before this, adopted children were held to have the same status as natural children. However, God revealed that this belief was mistaken (Surat al-Ahzab, 33:4) and told to Muhammad (pbuh) to marry Zaynab so that the community would understand that an adopted child’s ex-spouse could be married.

The Battle of the Ditch (Khandaq) and the Banu Qurayzah

The successes over the Ghatafan tribe and Dawmat al-Jandal, and over the Banu al-Nadir, had brought about a period of peace that the Muslims used to organize their internal affairs. During this time, the Arabian Peninsula was divided into many autonomous tribal and clan republics, each of which depended upon an intricate inter-tribal system for its security. The Muslims, having emerged as a multiethnic identity, caused the traditional tribal and religious groups to view them with great anger and to hold them responsible for dividing the Arabs. The resulting hostility required the Muslims to remain vigilant all the time.

The Jews, perhaps the most cognizant of Muhammad’s (pbuh) teachings, were the most worried about him. They were already competing against the Christians, who had slid into Trinitarianism, and saw the emergence of the purely monotheistic Islam as a challenge to Judaism. Their anger only increased after the setbacks suffered by the Banu Qayunuqa and Banu al-Nadir tribes. The Jews had two options: migrate to their old land of Sham or confront Muhammad (pbuh). Finally choosing the latter course, they sought an alliance with the Quraysh.

While the leaders of both parties met at Makkah, the Quraysh were informed that the Banu al-Nadir were somewhere near Khaybar waiting to join the Quraysh in battle against Muhammad (pbuh), and that the Banu Qayunuqa were still inside Madinah, waiting to fight the Muslims from within. The Jews even assured the Quraysh that they preferred their paganism to Islam. After agreeing with the Quraysh on a firm date to attack Muhammad (pbuh), the Jewish leaders visited the other tribes that had fought the Muslims, singing their praises of paganism and winning them over.

The allied force marching against Madinah included 4,000 infantrymen, 300 cavalrymen, and 1,500 camels led by Abu Sufyan, the overall commander. The Banu Fazarah sent a large infantry group and 1,000 camels, the Ashja and Murrah supplied 400 soldiers each, and the Sulaym sent 700 soldiers. The Banu Sad and Banu Asad added more troops, bringing the total to more than 10,000 soldiers, all of whom were led by Abu Sufyan. This force advanced to the outskirts of Madinah.

Such a mobilization naturally caused consternation among Madinah’s Muslims. In keeping with his practice, the Prophet consulted his Companions and ultimately accepted Salman al-Farisi’s advice to dig a moat (khandaq) around the city. The Prophet (pbuh) worked alongside the other Muslims, a source of inspiration that allowed the task to be finished in 6 days. In addition, all buildings facing the enemy lines were fortified. The Muslim army, consisting of only 3,000 men, readied itself for the battle that has become known as the Battle of the Ditch (627).

The Quraysh, surprised by this heretofore unknown method of defense, resorted to hurling javelins at the Muslims. Abu Sufyan and his generals realized that they faced a long winter siege. The Ghatafan tribe had been lured by the Jews’ promise of an entire year’s worth of crops from the orchards of Khaybar, and Abu Sufyan was itching to avenge past defeats. This situation created despondency especially among the Jews, who had seen this as an excellent opportunity to destroy Islam. At the same time, however, they worried that any demobilization may cause the Quraysh to turn against them, since they had instigated this campaign.

This situation worried the top leader Jewish leader, Huyayy ibn Akhtab, and so he set out to play his last card: enticing the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayzah to break their alliance with the Muslims. This would sever the Muslim supply lines plus give his forces a way into Madinah. Thus, he approached the tribe’s chief, Ka`b ibn Asad, and eventually persuaded him to betray the Muslims. Upon receiving the news, the Prophet (pbuh) sent a delegation to Ka`b to clarify the situation. But the former ally refused to listen, and so the delegation decided to return rather than to pick up a fight.

This betrayal caused great concern among the Muslims, because the Banu Qurayzah could provide the enemy an entry point through which they could break the siege. The betrayal was so complete that the Banu Qurayzah requested a 10-day delay from the Quraysh so that its members could better prepare for war against the Muslims. After obtaining this pact, the enemy forces were arranged in three formations: one to advance from the valley, one from the flank, and the other, led by Abu Sufyan, to cross the ditch. The traitorous Banu Qurayzah positioned its members to strike from behind the lines.

The enemy, thus heartened, struck across the ditch and tried to establish a beachhead. However, a team led by Ali ibn Abu Talib thwarted this attempt. In response, the enemy unleashed the Banu Qurayzah against the Muslims from behind their lines of defense. The Jews sought to attack the fort where Muslim women and children had been placed, but this attempt was beaten back.

The Prophet’s (pbuh) intelligence sources indicated that the Ghatafan clan was becoming uneasy with the long siege. On the other hand, the Prophet (pbuh) sent an emissary to the Banu Qurayzah to bring them back to the Muslim side, warning that the enemy may break down and leave them in the lurch among newly hostile neighbors. He also promised a reward to the Ghatafan if they would leave the enemy camp, which they agreed to do. At the same time, Abu Sufyan asked these Jews to attach on Saturday, the Sabbath. When they refused to do so, he consulted with his other allies, the Ghatafan, but they too seemed hesitant. Abu Sufyan’s troubles were compounded when a severe rainstorm hit their camp, blowing away tents, uprooting date trees, killing camels, and destroying supplies. Considering their situation, the Quraysh retreated. 

From the Campaign against the Banu Qurayzah to the Treaty of Hudaybiyah

The internal divisions and the Quraysh’s sudden withdrawal forced the Banu Qurayzah to abandon their participation in the war against the Muslims. Even at this juncture, Huyayy ibn Akhtab incited the Banu Qurayzah to start a fight with the Muslims. As recent events had convinced the Prophet (pbuh) that this tribe could not be trusted, he waited until the Qurayshi troops were out of sight and then besieged the Banu Qurayzah. After 25 days, they sought a negotiated settlement. Sa`d ibn Mu`adh, who was acceptable to both parties as the arbitrator, decreed that the Jews should surrender and that the men who had fought the Muslims should be executed. As agreed beforehand, the arbitrator’s decree was implemented. Those who sought pardon or converted were spared, while the hardened enemies of Islam preferred to die rather than surrender.

The responsibility for this tragedy rested on Huyayy ibn Akhtab, who had incited the Quraysh and the tribes and had convinced the Banu Qurayzah to betray and oppose the Muslims. Consumed by an unrelenting enmity toward the Muslims, he had instilled such a level of hate in the Banu Qurayzah toward the Muslims that their own ally, Sa`d ibn Mu`adh, believed that they would rally the tribes to fight the Muslims again even if they were forgiven. This tribe’s defeat broke the power of the Munafiqeen and gained new respect for the Muslims among the Arab tribes. The Message of God was not meant for Madinah alone but for all of humanity, and this is what awaited the Muslims.

After these victories, the situation stabilized in favor the Muslims both in Madinah and, due to the increased respect accorded to them, throughout the peninsula. The following 6 months of peace allowed them to better internalize Muhammad’s (pbuh) message and work under him to reorganize and create social institutions.

The Prophet realized that regardless of the strength of his followers’ faith, social change would have to be a process. He needed to restructure their lives and minds so that they would be able to observe the prescribed daily prayers and internalize spiritual and other guidance and abandon such traditional “normal” practices as gambling, eating pork, and drinking alcohol.

Islam sought to reorganize society on the foundation of pure family life free from outside intrusion. Thus, adultery was declared a grave sin and both men and women were asked to be modest and chaste. Relations among people were defined, parameters were set as to what was lawful and what was not, and behavior and interpersonal relations were clearly defined (Surat al-Nur, 24:30-31). The laws of proper decorum were related, such as entering homes only after being given permission to do so (Surat al-Ahzab, 33:53). All of these regulations sought to direct the Muslims to a higher life, one where they might enjoy the pleasures of this world without corroding their moral fabric, and one that would lead them to a spiritual relationship with all of God’s creatures.

While the Prophet (pbuh) was thus engaged, he also kept the military on alert because he knew that the Quraysh and the other tribes had not yet given up their opposition. Only 6 months after the Muslims had gotten rid of the Banu Qurayzah, that Banu Lihyan, who had killed several Muslims, were reported to be marching toward Madinah. Soon, the Prophet (pbuh) led a force against them and, finding them on the run, told Abu Bakr to pursue them to their end. As soon as Muhammad (pbuh) returned to Madinah, some tribesmen raided its outskirts, abducted some Muslim women, and stole their camels. A Muslim force sent to pursue them freed the women and retrieved the stolen property. About 2 months later, the Banu Mustaliq were reported to be preparing for a war with the goal of killing the Prophet (pbuh). However, a Muslim force surprised them and forced their surrender.

Abdullah ibn Ubbay, who had only accompanied the Muslims to get some booty, began spreading false propaganda to whip up the people against the Prophet (pbuh). Unchecked, he spread his tales further afield and did so much damage that Surat al-Munafiqeen was revealed about the hypocrites. Despite the severity of his transgressions, the Prophet pardoned him.

But during this expedition, an even graver situation had arisen: Aishah, who had accompanied the Prophet (pbuh), had lost her necklace. While searching for it, she had wandered away from the Muslim camp. Even worse, her camel was marched away because the soldiers did not notice that her cabin upon its back was empty. Returning to camp, she found it deserted and lay down wrapped in a blanket, hoping that the Prophet (pbuh) would notice her absence and come back for her. In the meantime, a Muslim soldier who was looking for two of his missing men found her and offered her ride on his camel. They tried hard to catch up, but the Prophet’s (pbuh) party was racing home fast. Aishah arrived home in the early hours, and no one had reason to blame her or suspect her or her helper.

During the same post-campaign period, the Prophet married Juwayriyah bint al-Harith, daughter of a Banu al-Mustaliq chief. She had been captured and then freed. While this was going on, someone started a rumor that Aishah had had a sexual relationship with her rescuer. Soon, Abdullah ibn Ubbay began making the most of this gossip – so much so that it almost caused a civil war. The Prophet (pbuh) was deeply hurt, and became so despondent and upset with Aishah that he let her go to her mother’s home when she fell ill. Only then did shelearn of the gossip. Of course, she was extremely upset. The Prophet (pbuh) was so affected that he tried to question her, which made her upset with him. She sought God’s mercy. At this moment, God revealed that she was innocent (Surat al-Nur, 24:11, 16-17) and laid out the punishment for those who falsely accuse others of adultery (Surat a-Nur, 24:4) Despite the pain that the family had suffered, the Prophet (pbuh) forgave Aishah’s accusers and asked her father (Abu Bakr) to forgive them.

In the 6 years since the migration from Makkah to Madinah, the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions had engaged in many battles and conflicts with their enemies. But throughout this period, Islam continued to gain converts and power. From the first year of the Hijrah (622) until this time, the Prophet (pbuh) had prayed in the direction of the Ka`bah in Makkah, for God had told him to longer face Jerusalem while praying.

All Arabs faced the sanctuary at Makkah while praying and made pilgrimages to it. This hallowed ground guaranteed security for everybody, and even enemies would meet there without rancor. The Quraysh, ostensibly to punish Muhammad (pbuh) for migrating from the city, forbade all Muslims from entering the sanctuary on the grounds that they had turned their backs on the deities. The reply to this ban was delivered in a revelation that pointed out that while fighting during the holy months was a transgression, hindering people from God’s path and forcing worshippers from the mosque was a far greater transgression (Surat al-Baraqa, 2:217). Throughout these years, verses centering on Makkah continued to be revealed.

All Muslims felt a void in their souls at this exclusion. However, this feeling was especially acute among the Muhajireen, who missed their hometown. In addition, this exclusion was something uncharacteristic of the Arab tradition, according to which even tribes worshipping their own idols were free to use the Ka`bah. However, the Quraysh reasoned that extending this right to the Muslims would mean exposing their people to Islam. And, they were still mad at the Muslims for convincing many of the pagans to leave their ancestral faith and for cutting off their trade route to Sham. Such was the situation when God revealed that the Muslims would soon enter the sanctuary in a secure manner, unarmed and without fear for their safety.

Muhammad (pbuh) announced that he would lead the pilgrimage and that the Muslims would not need to fight to get there. Making it clear that this would be a peaceful undertaking, he invited all of the tribes to join him. This was a challenge to the Quraysh, for if they prevented this pilgrimage and picked a fight, the Arabs would turn against them. Many tribes accepted the invitation, and the procession, led by the Prophet (pbuh) riding a camel, set out on the first day of Dhu al-Qidah, one of the holy months. The Quraysh sent out a force to stop the pilgrims. Muhammad (pbuh) continued to move forward, firmly resolved to keep the situation peaceful. Knowing that the Makkan cavalry loomed on the horizon and that his group, attired in the traditional pilgrimage garments (ihram), was not prepared for war, he sought to bypass the Makkan troops by going to Hudaybiyah, where they camped in order to rest.

The Quraysh watched these moves and were still resolved to deny the Prophet (pbuh) entry to Makkah. Many in both camps wanted to fight. Some Muslims thought that victory in such a battle would seal the Quraysh’s fate. When the Quraysh sent a delegation to persuade Muhammad (pbuh) to abandon his pilgrimage, he told them that he had come only for pilgrimage, not for battle. Nevertheless, the Qurayshi elders argued that despite such noble aims, the large Muslim group should not be allowed entry. They sent another delegation to confirm their understanding of the situation. When that delegation returned with the same answer, the Quraysh decided to provoke an incident: They dispatched a team of Abyssinians, hoping that some misunderstanding would occur between these rural people and Muhammad (pbuh) so that the Quraysh would have a pretext to fight and keep the Muslims out of Makkah. This ploy failed when the tribal leader, seeing the Muslims’ religious commitment, returned without even bothering to confirm Muhammad’s (pbuh) words. He gave his opinion to the Quraysh. The report that the Bedouin had not even talked to Muhammad (pbuh) angered the Quraysh, and the tribe threatened to leave.

The Quraysh then dispatched Urwah ibn Masud al-Thaqafi, a person they could really trust, to open negotiations. The Prophet (pbuh) rejected the proposal that he separate himself from his people, firmly restating that he had come only to fulfill a religious obligation. A fully convinced Urwah returned and told the Quraysh that the Muslim mission was peaceful and that Muhammad (pbuh) was as fully committed to his followers as they were to him. To make this perfectly clear, the Prophet (pbuh) sent a delegation to the Quraysh. However, the Makkans attacked the Muslim delegation, whose members were rescued only by the Bedouins’ intervention. During the night, some Makkans threw stones at the Muslim camp. When they were caught, the Prophet (pbuh), in keeping with the general plan to avoid conflict in the holy area (Hudaybiyah was within Makkah’s boundaries) during the holy months, pardoned them. This deprived the Quraysh of another pretext for war.

The Prophet (pbuh) sent another delegation to negotiate with the Quraysh, this time led by  Uthman ibn Affan. The negotiations became prolonged, and the Muslims became concerned for Uthman’s life. Thinking that maybe he had been killed, they gathered under a large tree and produced the Covenant of al-Radwan. At this moment, Surat al-Fath 48:18 was revealed, blessing these people.

Finally, Uthman returned and told the Muslims that while the Quraysh recognized the right of all Arabs to perform the pilgrimage, some minor skirmishes had taken place and that they worried that letting the Muslims in at this stage would be interpreted by other tribes as a sign of Qurayshi weakness. Therefore, they argued that they were maintaining this ban in the interest of their reputation and prestige. However, they invited the Prophet (pbuh) to work with them to find a mutually acceptable solution. The Quraysh did not want war during the holy months, for such a development would harm their security and commerce. They proposed that the Muslims should return to Madinah and return for pilgrimage the next year.

Despite many of the Muslims’ initial disagreement, the Prophet (pbuh) agreed. The terms were spelled out, in March 628, and Ali ibn Abu Talib served as the scribe. The Prophet (pbuh), upon the Qurayshi representative Suhayl ibn Amr’s insistence, agreed to several changes in the proposed treaty, one of them being any omission that he was the Prophet of God. Further conditions were that anybody from among the Quraysh who migrated without his guardian’s permission would be returned to Makkah, while any Muslim migrating to Makkah would be allowed to stay; that all tribes were free to ally themselves with the Muslims or the Quraysh; and that when the Muslims returned the following year for the pilgrimage, the Quraysh would evacuate the city for 3 days and allow the Muslims to worship. However, they could bear no arms other than their swords and would have to leave immediately after the 3 days had passed.

Soon after its promulgation, the Khuza`ah tribe allied itself with the Muslims, and the Banu Bakr allied itself with the Quraysh. The Muslim son of Suhayl, the Qurayshi delegate, asked permission to migrate to Madinah, which his father refused. Obeying the treaty, the Prophet (pbuh) did not insist on his freedom but advised him to be patient.

The Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions sacrificed their animals, and then the men shaved or cut their hair, as if they were performing umrah (the lesser pilgrimage). Despite this, the Muslims were dejected by the treaty’s tough terms and only grudgingly returned home. On the return march, however, Surat al-Fath was revealed to inform them that God had granted them a clear victory. And a victory it was, for this was the first time that the Quraysh had accepted the Prophet as an equal rather than as a runaway or rebel. Moreover, the Makkans recognized the Islamic state, accepted the Muslim right to visit Makkah for pilgrimage, and, in effect, admitted that Islam was an established religion.

The ensuing peace gave Muslims security from any attacks coming from the south. After this treaty, Islam spread rapidly. The freedom to ally with others was a boon, and the Prophet (pbuh) addressed kings and chiefs overseas to join Islam. While the Muslim army at Hudaybiyah was composed of just 1,400 mean, 2 years later, when the Muslims launched the conquest of Makkah, they had a force of over 10,000 men.

The example of Abu Basir, a new Muslim who had run away to Madina, was an eye-opener for the Quraysh. When the Quraysh sent their emissaries to retrieve him, the Prophet (pbuh) advised him to return, as envisaged under the treaty. However, Abu Basir killed his master and, after informing the Prophet (pbuh) that he had obeyed the treaty by returning him to Makkah, now he would take care of himself. Soon, he established himself at al-Is, on the coastal route to Sham, and began to organize those who fled there to join his attacks upon Qurayshi caravans. The Quraysh finally realized that trying to hold on to new Muslims only created new enemies for them, and that it was in their interest to let them migrate. Abu Basir’s raids so unnerved the Quraysh that they sent Suhayl to renegotiate to relevant clause so that new Muslims would be allowed to migrate to Madinah in exchange for the security of their trading route. The treaty was amended accordingly.

The treaty had not included women, and the Prophet (pbuh) did not return Muslim women who sought refuge in Madinah. He pointed out that the treaty only concerned men, and that because their conversion to Islam severed their marital ties with their non-Muslim husbands, they needed no permission from their former husbands to migrate.

The Khaybar Campaign and Missions to Various Rulers

The treaty of Hudaybiyah freed the Prophet (pbuh) from security issues. Now that the faith had reach a high level of crystallization, he sought to expand its boundaries beyond Madinah, and even beyond Arabia. Among the specific social prescriptions revealed during this time was the three-stage prohibition of alcohol.

Heraclius and Chosroes were the rulers of the Byzantine and Persian empires, respectively, the local superpowers of that time – and also mutual enemies. First, the Persians conquered Palestine and Egypt, and then Heraclius reclaimed Jerusalem and recovered the “true cross” from the Persians. As for the other regions: Iraq was under Persian influence, Sham and Egypt were under Roman influence, and Hijaz and the rest of the Arabian Peninsula were under the influence of the both. Arab prosperity depended on Yemen and Sham, and so the Arabs had to maintain good ties with the superpowers. Mutually hostile tribes with no networking or cooperation among each other inhabited the Peninsula itself.

It was thus something amazing for Muhammad (pbuh) to invite the rulers of Persia, Byzantium, Yemen, Egypt, Abyssinia, and other lands to embrace Islam, and then further to tell them that the responsibility for their people’s salvation lay in their hands. Each letter was hand-carried by an emissary of the Prophet (pbuh). Thirty years after he sent these invitations, the Muslims conquered all of these kingdoms and most of their citizen accepted Islam. The biggest surprise was the fall of the two superpowers, where spiritual influence had been decaying. Persia was divided between paganism and Zoroastrianism, and Byzantine Christianity was rife with sectarian disputes and controversies.

Before sending out these invitations, the Prophet (pbuh) decided to deal with the Jews who lived to the north of Madinah, for they had already shown that they could not be trusted to keep their agreements with the Muslims. So, before they could ally themselves with other hostile elements, only 15 days after his return from Hudaybiyah, the Prophet led a well-equipped force of 1,600 men, including a 100-man cavalry unit, toward Khaybar. He reached it on the third day. The Jews, fearing that this was coming, had tried to find allies. However, they could not hold on to the Ghatafan tribe, which had accepted the Muslim offer.

Khaybar, site of the richest and most powerful Jewish community, was besieged. After the first skirmishes, the Muslims advanced and tightened their blockade. The Prophet (pbuh) finally entrusted Ali ibn Abu Talib with this undertaking. Ali stormed the strong fortress of Naim and went on to the fortress of al-Qamus. The siege had its effects on the Muslims too, for they were running out of supplies. However, their hardship was relieved when they secured the well-provisioned fortress of al Sa`b ibn Mu`adh. The fighting on all fronts was intense, and the Muslims made slow progress. The assault on al-Zubayr fortress required a long siege, which ended only when the Muslims captured its water supply and forced the Jews to surrender.

The Prophet (pbuh) said that the Jews could live on their land if they would accept Muslim supremacy. The Muslims returned all copies of the Torah that had been captured, and the Prophet (pbuh) even asked them to continue practicing their faith. However, relations between the two communities were shaken when a Jewess attempted to poison the Prophet (pbuh). He forgave her, but the people’s confidence in the Jews was shaken. This victory obliged other Jewish fortresses to surrender without resistance, and thus helped to secure Madinah’s northern flank, just as Hudabiyah had secured its southern flank.

The letters to the rulers and the emperors evoked various reaction. Heraclius received this letter as he was embarking uoon his pilgrimage to Jerusalem to restore the “true cross,” and so gave it no thought. Al-Harith of Ghassan, upon receiving his letter, sought Heraclius’ cooperation in fighting the new faith, but was instead invited by Heraclius to accompany him to Jerusalem. Little did Heraclius imagine that a few years hence, this city would belong to the Muslims.

Emperor Chosroes of Persia, although fresh from a defeat at the hands of Heraclius, flew into a rage when the Prophet’s letter was read to him. He immediately ordered his governor in Yemen, Bazan, to deal a blow to this “pretender.” Bazan sent a delegation to look for the Prophet (pbuh). In the meantime, however, Chosroes died and was replaced by his son Cyrus. The Prophet (pbuh) received the Yemeni delegation and asked it to return to Bazan with an invitation to Islam. Upon receiving the invitation, Bazan accepted Islam and was appointed as the Muslim governor.

The Coptic archbishop of Egypt, who said that he was expecting a prophet to arise in Sham, nevertheless provided a good reception to the Prophet’s representative and sent him gifts, among which were the slave girls Mariyah and Sirin. The archbishop, however, explained that he could not convert due to his fear of his superior: Heraclius. The Prophet married Mariyah, who became the mother of his son Ibrahim, who died in infancy.

The Negus of Abyssinia accorded a favorable reception to the Prophet’s letter, and, as requested, provided a ship for the Muslim refugees to return home. Among the returnees was Umm Habibah (Ramlah) bint Abu Sufyan, the widow of Abdullah ibn Jahsh, who had converted to Christianity and died in Abyssinia as a Christian. The Prophet (pbuh) married her. The rulers of Yemen and Oman sent arrogant replies, while the ruler of Bahrain immediately accepted Islam. The ruler of Yamamah agreed to convert, but only on the condition that his rule be perpetrated. He died a year later.

Interestingly, none of these emissaries was harmed by the rulers, and all of them returned home safely. A probable reason for this is that these rulers were inclined to examine the new faith, for they had heard how Muhammad (pbuh) had triumphed over his foes, and they began to respect him. The return of the refugees from Abyssinia, as well as the return of the ambassadors, furthered the Muslims’ yearning to return to Makkah.

The Muslim Pilgrimage to Makkah and Other Events

One year had passed after the Treaty of Hudaybiyah, and now the Muslims were free to make the pilgrimage. Some 2,000 of them responded to the Prophet’s call to perform umrah (the lesser pilgrimage). As agreed, each man only carried a sword in its scabbard. However, the Prophet (pbuh) feared Qurayshi treachery and so assigned a 100-man cavalry unit to reconnoiter the fields ahead of them. He forbade them to enter the holy ground surrounding Makkah.

This procession contained refugees who longed to see their homeland, as well as the Ansar, who were equally anxious to see the blessed city. The Quraysh, as agreed, evacuated Makkah and camped out on the surrounding hills when they learned of the Muslims’ arrival. The Prophet showed the pilgrims how to perform umrah: wearing the ihram, circumambulating the Ka`bah, and running between the Safa and Marwah hills. It must have been a great sight to see Bilal calling the 2,000 Muslims to prayer behind the Prophet (pbuh). The non-Muslim Makkans, peering down from the hills, must have been impressed by the Muslims’ unity, order, and discipline. After 3 days, the Muslims returned to Madinah. However, within a few months they would be back, for Makkah would open its gates to the Prophet (pbuh) without a struggle.

Umm al-Fadl, the wife of the Prophet’s (pbuh) uncle al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, had been asked by her Maimunah, her 26-year-old sister, to find her a husband. During this time, Maimunah witnessed the Muslim pilgrimage and wanted to convert. She asked her uncle al-Abbas to propose her marriage to the Prophet (pbuh). He agreed. Desiring to solemnize the marriage in Makkah, he invited the Makkans to join in the celebration. But the Makkans, fearing that such socialization would be problematic, refused and asked the Muslims to leave Makkah. The Prophet (pbuh) readily complied. He asked a ward to accompany Maimunah, and they got married outside of Makkah. This was his last marriage.

The pilgrimage left a positive mark on the hearts and minds of many Makkans, among them the great Qurayshi hero Khalid ibn al-Walid. The news of his conversion sent a shock wave among the Quraysh and, despite efforts to dissuade him, especially by Abu Sufyan, he proclaimed his conversion. Later on, Khalid moved to Madinah. Soon other leaders, among them Uthman ibn Talhah, the Ka`bah’s guardian, also embraced Islam.

The year-old Treaty of Hudaybiyah was holding and peace prevailed. The Prophet (pbuh) was strictly adhering to it, and there was no rush to recover Makkah. However, in the months following the pilgrimage, a few minor skirmishes, involving the killing of teachers of Islam sent to various clans, occurred. In response, the Prophet (pbuh) sent small expeditions to punish the wrongdoers.

Seeking to spread Islam northwards, beyond Arabia, Sham and the adjoining territories captured the Muslims’ interest. The Prophet (pbuh) readied a force, reputed to number up to 3,000 fighters. This new expedition was directed toward Mutah, where the Ghassani tribesmen had killed a Companion, ostensibly in Heraclius’ name. The Prophet (pbuh) had already sent a warning of a punitive attack. The Muslim army was led by Zayd ibn Harith, with Ja`far ibn Abu Talib as vice-commander, and included Khalid ibn al-Walid, a new Muslim and valiant fighter. The news of the Muslim advance – already at Maan – alerted Shurabhil, Heraclius’ commissioner in Sham. Mobilizing the region’s tribes, he sent word to the emperor for Greek and Arab troops. The numbers of his troops was reported to be somewhere near 200,000 in total. After a brief skirmish, the Muslims set up positions in Mutah.

Even though they were grossly outnumbered, the Muslims bravely plunged into battle. The three commanders, Zayd, Ja`far, and Abdullah ibn Rawdah were martyred in action. Finally, Khalid was chosen to lead. He devised a ruse that so unnerved the enemy that they withdrew from the field – they thought that massive reinforcements were on the way from Madinah. The Muslims also retreated to Madinah. This event greatly upset the people of Madinah, who castigated the troops for their cowardice. However, the Prophet (pbuh) assured the people that this withdrawal had been tactical in nature and that new victories were on the way.

In order to maintain the Muslims’ reputation, the Prophet (pbuh) ordered an expedition against Sham. This campaign was led by Amr ibn al-As who, in association with Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jurrah, was successful campaign. The inclusion of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab not only heightened the Muslims morale, but also maintained the community’s prestige.

Makkah was on the Prophet’s mind. However, the Treaty of Hudabiyah would not expire for 2 more years. During this period, all excursions to the south were aimed at rebellious tribes. Such activity was helped by the constant arrival of delegations to Madinah, whose members declared their people’s conversion to Islam. In the midst of such activity, the Quraysh violated the treaty and the Muslims had to respond. The end result of this incident was the successful conquest of Makkah in 630.

The Conquest of Makkah

Both the Muslim and the Byzantine forces had been happy to retreat from Mutah. The Muslims were pleased to be able to retreat with most of their force intact, while Byzantines were grateful not to be drawn into a long war. In addition, the Muslims’ valiant resistance created awe for Muslim power among the tribes living in the outskirts of Sham.

Soon after this campaign, Farwah ibn Amr al-Judhami, chief of one such tribe and a Byzantine divisional army commander, converted to Islam. Hercalius had him jailed and promised to release him and restore him to power if he reverted to Christianity. Al-Judhami refused to betray Islam and was executed. This electrified the region, and several tribes living in Iraq and Sham under the Byzantine protectorate accepted Islam. Meanwhile, the Byzantine Empire was rapidly disintegrating and the people began to lose their fear of learning about Islam’s message and even embracing it. Thousands of local tribespeople, including those of the Ghafatan, who had been allied to the Jews of Khaybar, converted. Thus, Mutah helped consolidate Islam in the north, all the way from Madinah to the frontiers of Sham.

At home in Madinah, some Muslim fighters became so dispirited by what they considered to be a setback at Mutah that they started avoiding being seen in public. The Quraysh, interpreting the Muslims’ retreat as a sign of weakness and lost energy, decided to strike them.

Under the treaty, any Muslim or Quraysh was free to join the other camp. Thus, when the Khuza`ah joined the Muslims and the Banu Bakr opted for the Quraysh, many blood feuds had to be suspended. However, the Banu Dil clan of the Banu Bakr tribe, encouraged and armed by the Quraysh, decided to avenge themselves against the Khuza`ah. The Khuza`ah took refuge in Makkah and asked the Quraysh to stop their allies, for their attack was a violation of the treaty. In the meantime, a Khuza`ah representative arrived in Madinah to seek the Prophet’s (pbuh) help. After confirming the situation and satisfying himself that the treaty had been violated, the Prophet (pbuh) ordered a general mobilization across the peninsula. The destination remained a closely guarded secret.

Some of the Qurayshi elders worried about their peoples’ folly and feared that the Muslims might attack Makkah itself. On the advice of these elders, Abu Sufyan was asked to go to Madinah to extend the treaty to 10 years. On the way, he met Budayl ibn Warqa and his companion. Seeing them, he assumed that Muhammad (pbuh) might have preceded him to this place with an army, which would make his mission more difficult. With this in mind, he decided to see his daughter Umm Habibah, the Prophet’s wife, rather than Muhammad (pbuh) himself.

When he entered her house and was about to sit on the Prophet’s (pbuh) cushion, she removed it from under him, for she did not want a polytheist to sit on her husband’s cushion. Upset, he left her house in a rage and went to meet Muhammad (pbuh), who refused to meet with him. Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, and Ali also refused to intercede on his behalf. Finding no one to help him, before he left for Makkah he went to the Prophet’s Mosque and proclaimed, on behalf of his tribe, that the Quraysh were willing to make peace with the Muslims.

The Prophet’s (pbuh) strategy was to surprise the Quraysh before they could get ready for war and to conquer Makkah without bloodshed. Thus, he asked his army to get ready to march, and only then told them their destination. Although he kept his plan secret, one Muslim, in a moment of weakness, betrayed them to the Quraysh. However, the betrayal was detected in time and Ali, who was sent to intercept the messenger, caught him in time.

Finally, a 10,000-man army, including those who joined en route, marched forward under the Prophet’s (pbuh) command. Many Makkans who heard about the approaching army decided to rethink their beliefs, went forward, and accepted Islam, among them Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet’s (pbuh) uncle. Now a Muslim, Abbas worried about the Makkans’ future, especially when such a vast army was approaching. Relaying his concerns to his nephew, the Prophet (pbuh) sent him to Makkah to negotiate the city’s peaceful surrender. Abbas met with Abu Sufyan, the Makkan commander and avowed enemy of the Muslims, and impressed upon him the need to shed his pride and embrace Islam. At Abbas’ intervention, the Prophet (pbuh) granted an audience to Abu Sufyan. At this instant, Umar ibn al-Khattab sought permission to execute Abu Sufyan for his treachery and opposition to Islam. However, Abbas sought protection for Abu Sufyan, and the latter accepted Islam and was given protection. The Prophet (pbuh) also declared that anyone who entered the mosque would be secure.

Some biographers and historians conjecture whether these events took place accidentally or by prearrangement. Despite such variant views and arguments, such as Abu Sufyan trying to preserve his leadership, the reality is that the Prophet’s (pbuh) wisdom led to achieving the greatest victory in Islamic history without bloodshed.

Abu Sufyan’s conversion did not dissuade Muhammad (pbuh) from taking all precautions before entering Makkah. He ordered Abu Sufyan to be held at the valley’s gate so that he could watch and describe the Muslim army to the Makkans. At the same time, however, the Makkans would be given no time to mobilize for war. Abu Sufyan was duly impressed at seeing the disciplined and large army, and remarked to his patron Abbas that no force on Earth could withstand it. He immediately ran forth and exhorted the Makkans to surrender peacefully, as they could not win, adding that he had been told that anyone who enters the mosque would be safe. The Muslims advanced, stopping at Dhu Tuwa to survey the holy city, which lay defenseless before them, the city that was the first theater of revelation. Muhammad (pbuh) ordered his troops to halt and, while mounted on his steed, bent in a prayer of thankfulness to God.

Despite the emerging scenario, Muhammad (pbuh) kept up his guard and continued to unfold his tactical plan. As he advanced forward, he divided his army into four divisions, instructing them to fight only in a case of extreme self-defense. Zubayr ibn al-Awwam’s division was told to enter Makkah from the north; Khalid ibn al Walid’s division from the south, Sa`d ibn Ubadah’s division from the west, and Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah’s division from the north, near Mount Hind. The Prophet (pbuh) joined the Muhajireens’ battalion. However, upon seeing al-Jarrah’s enthusiasm for fighting, he replaced him with his son Qays, who had a far gentler disposition than his father.

The Muslim army entered and occupied Makkah without opposition. Only Khalid ibn al-Walid met some resistance, as his region was inhabited with the most antagonistic members of the Quraysh, those who had conspired to violate the treaty of Hudaybiyah.

The Muslim army stood and looked at Makkah below. They encamped, and the Prophet (pbuh) entered his tent to rest. However, feeling the urge to complete the task, he soon came out and circumambulated the Ka`bah without dismounting. After that, he dismounted, ordered the Ka`bah’s door to be opened, and reminded the people that God had only created the sexes and tribes that people “might know each other and cooperate with one another” (surat al-Hujurat, 49:13). Addressing the Quraysh, he said that they were kith and kin and so would enjoy their freedom. In fact, he granted them a general amnesty.

This was a magnanimous action, for many of these people had tried to kill him, and had persecuted him and his Companions, fought him, incited revolt, and harassed and opposed the Muslims. However, 17 Makkans were condemned to death for their crimes against the Muslims. Despite the severity of their crimes, the Prophet forgave 13 of them and only four were executed. The pardoned people even included such antagonistic anti-Muslims as Abu Sufyan’s wife Hind, who, in her spite, had ripped out the martyred Hamza’s liver and chewed it.

Upon entering the Ka`bah, he saw that its wall had murals of the prophets and angels, and that idols had been placed therein. He ordered the paintings to be scraped off and the idols broken, reciting from the Qur'an that “the truth has become manifest and falsehood has been refuted” Surat al-Isra’, 17:81). With the destruction of these objects, paganism’s defeat was complete and all the objects of reverence and worship inherited by the Quraysh lay broken. The Prophet (pbuh) then stood on Mount Safa invited the Quraysh to embrace Islam.

The Ansar were apprehensive that having conquered the city of his birth, the Prophet (pbuh) would abandon Madinah. But he soon laid such fears to rest, declaring that he would never give up the city that had given him refuge, and that he would abide by the Covenant of Aqabah. Once the Ka`bah was cleared of its pagan objects, the Prophet (pbuh) stood on its roof, called the adhan, and led the Muslims in prayer. Since that day, this call to prayer continues to be proclaimed in Makkah, and Muslims around the world face this holy House of God in prayer.

The next day, the Prophet (pbuh) found out that a pagan tribesman had been executed in Makkah. Upset, he assembled the Muslims and made it clear that Makkah remained inviolate and that God had only permitted him to enter it armed. But now, it enjoyed its holiness. He castigated the killers and told them to ask his family to find if they would accept the bloodwit or demand the murderer’s death. The family decided to accept the bloodwit. This example became the Islamic law off dealing with murder cases. He also told all believers to destroy any idols that they might have in their homes and to repair the Ka`bah’s walls. During his 2-week stay, he wiped out all traces of paganism and abolished all offices attached to the holy House.

Khalid ibn al-Walid, who had been sent to destroy al-Uzza, the goddess of the Banu Shayban, proceeded to subdue the Jadhimah tribe. But they resisted. While negotiating, Khalid ordered some of the tribesmen to be executed. The Prophet (pbuh) castigated Khalid for his mistake, and dispatched Ali ibn Abu Talib to pay the required bloodwit and to compensate them for any damage to their property. In fact, Ali paid them over and above their claims.

The Campaigns of Hunayn and Ta’if

Two weeks after Makkah fell, news came that the Hawazin tribe to the southeast were marching against the Muslims to avenge the destruction of their idols. Malik ibn Awf al-Nadri had also united the Hawazin, Thaqif, Nasr, and Jushum tribes into an anti-Muslim alliance. Al-Nadri had a plan. He ordered his allies to bring not only their men, but also their families and their treasure to the battlefield in the Awtas valley, assuming that this would cause the men would fight with greater valor. His strategy was to march on the top of the Sulaym hills at the valley’s entrance and pounce upon the Muslims as they passed through the canyon.

The Muslim army had grown to 12,000, for 2,000 new Muslims from the Quraysh had joined, among them Abu Sufyan. They arrived at Hunyan, with Khalid leading the march and the Prophet (pbuh) bringing up the rear. Here, al-Nadri’s planned clicked into action and threw the Muslims off-guard. The Muslim army fell apart and fled. Some of the new Muslim Makkans were quite happy at this development.

The Prophet (pbuh) was not dismayed or demoralized, but wanted to plunge into battle himself. However, Abu Sufyan restrained him. His uncle Abbas, a tall man with a booming voice, called the Ansar and the Muhajireen back to battle. Soon the Muslims regrouped. Seeing that their beloved Prophet (pbuh) had held his ground, they counterattacked while the Hawazin were emerging from their trenches. At that moment, the Prophet (pbuh) took a handful of pebbles and threw them toward the enemy, declaring: “Woe to the enemies of God.” The Muslim forces charged, throwing the enemy into chaos and forcing them to abandon not only their wives and children, but 22,000 camels, 40,000 goats, 4,000 ounces of silver, and 6,000 prisoners. The prisoners were kept in al-Jiranah valley, while the Muslim army pursued the fleeing troops and settled scores with the Thaqif tribe of al-Ta’if.

The Muslim victory was complete, and the retreating enemy led by al-Nadri escaped to al-Ta’if. However, Muslim losses had been heavy. At this moment, Surat al-Tawba 9:25-28 was revealed to remind the Muslims that their numerical superiority did not benefit them, but that God had sent His invisible army to help them. Further, from now only Muslims could enter the sacred area around the Ka`bah, and they had no reason to fear the loss of pilgrimage income when applying this ban.

The Prophet (pbuh) immediately ordered his army to march on Ta’if to tackle the enemy. This Thaqifi stronghold and refuge of al-Nadir was a wealthy and well-fortified city. The Muslim army overran the enemy fortress at Liyyah and encamped nearby to plan their strategy. However, the enemy saw the Muslims advance and showered them with arrows from the high fortification. The Prophet (pbuh) understood that it would be impossible to storm such strong fortifications and decided to pull back his camp.

Intent upon a victory, he consulted his Companions about the next move. In keeping with this counsel, the Muslims recruited a tribe specialized in catapult warfare. However, the city’s warlords were even smarter and forced another Muslim retreat. Now, the Prophet (pbuh) applied another tactic: He attacked the city’s vineyards, a specialty that had made the city an oasis in the desert. The Prophet (pbuh) said that anyone who surrendered could have his vineyard back. This did the trick, and some 20 people surrendered. They told him that the fort was provisioned for a long siege. Upon getting these reports, he ordered his army to withdraw and wait for the holy season to end, when he would then launch a second attack.

During their withdrawal to Makkah, the Muslims stopped at al-Jiranah, where the prisoners of an earlier campaign had been placed. Here, those Muslims belonging to the Hawazin tribe asked the Prophet (pbuh) to pardon their fellow tribesmen. He agreed to free them and even to return their captured property. However, he advised them to raise the issue in public after the noon prayer. They did as he suggested, and when the Prophet (pbuh) publicly declared the prisoners’ full pardon, all of his troops followed suit and returned the tribe’s captured goods. This gesture so overwhelmed the Hawazin that they converted to Islam en masse.

The Hawazin told the Prophet (pbuh) that their former collaborator al-Nadir was still holed up in Ta’if. He therefore sent a delegation to him, seeking his surrender and conversion, and promised to return all of his captured property along with a gift of 100 camels. This convinced al-Nadir to come to the Prophet, declare his conversion, and pick up his promised compensation. But some Muslims did not appreciate such largesse, fearing that they would be left with nothing. Upon hearing of these complaints, the Prophet (pbuh) collected all unclaimed property and divided it equally among is soldiers. The gifts he gave came out of his own share.

This reconciliation of enemies caused some of the Ansar to insinuate that the Prophet (pbuh) had been so magnanimous because the vanquished enemy was his kith and kin. Upon learning of these charges, the Prophet (pbuh) called an assembly and reminded them how Islam had changed their situation for the better. He explained to them that he had distributed material gods among some enemies in order to win them over, because, unlike them, their hearts were amenable only through such transactions, whereas the Ansar had embraced Islam through personal conviction. He asked them why they were not happy, seeing that while others had returned with material goods, the Ansar had returned with him. The Prophet (pbuh) prayed for God’s mercy on the Ansar and their offspring. The speech was so overwhelming that the assembled people started weeping and declaring that they had no complaints.

After completing his work at al-Jiranah, the Prophet (pbuh) went to Makkah to perform the umrah. He appointed Attab ibn Usayd as its governor and Mu`adh ibn Jabal to teach its people Islam and the Qur'an, and then returned to Madinah to await the birth of his son Ibrahim. This was a time to enjoy some peace before launching the conquest of Tabuk on the frontier of Sham.

The Prophet’s (pbuh) Newborn Son and His Wives

Muhammad (pbuh) returned to Madinah after his conquest of Makkah, his victory at Hunyan, and the siege of Ta’if, thereby showing that no group in the peninsula could match him. His victory over the Quraysh left a profound mark on all Arabs, from the high and mighty to the low and meek. Every day, more and more people embraced Islam, among them some important people. A Christian who once harbored immense hatred for the Prophet and had migrated to Sham converted to Islam after his sister, who had been captured, told him how well the Prophet (pbuh) had treated her and even provided passage to Sham.

During the period of peace and serenity, his beloved daughter Zaynab suffered a miscarriage and died from complications. As his other daughters, Umm Kulthum and Ruqiyyah, had already died, he was now left with only one child: Fatima. Soon, these losses would be compensated when his wife Mariyah gave birth to a son: Ibrahim. The Prophet (pbuh), now 60 years old, hardly expected such a gift from God. Thus, he celebrated this event with great enthusiasm. However, his other wives were not too enthusiastic due to the extra attention that Mariyah was getting.

Muhammad (pbuh) had drastically changed the status of women, and they were now enjoying a heretofore unknown measure of respect. The pressures that his wives placed on him eventually resulted in the revelation of Surat al-Rum 30:28-29, in which God told his wives to choose either worldly gain or the rewards of the Hereafter and the good graces of God and His Messenger (pbuh).

In fact, being human, his wives sought to divert his attentions to themselves. Such interactions between him and his wives only shows how much he had altered the status of women. Now, despite his status of prophethood, they freely questioned him. Once, his wives ganged up on one of their own and created such a situation that he gave up his favorite type of honey, which one of his wives had given to him.

The jealousy against Mariyah became so problematic that he separated himself from all of his wives for a month and confined himself to a bare storeroom that had only a coarse date-palm leaf mat. He was even considering of divorcing some of them. Finally, they realized their mistake and repented. The situation was resolved through the Umar ibn al-Khattab’s intercession. At this point, Surat al-Rum 30:1-5 was revealed, telling him not to forbid himself something lawful only to please his wives.

Orientalists have used such incidents to attack the Qur'an and the Prophet (pbuh), although other scriptures include family stories and that the Qur'an was revealed for humanity’s benefit. The Qur'an mentions the Prophet’s (pbuh) personal conduct in various situations so that it may guide others.

From the Tabuk Campaign to Ibrahim’s Death

The Prophet’s (pbuh) domestic matters did not divert his attention from statecraft. The conquest of Makkah had stabilized life and created a Muslim state with an orderly public and civic life. The emergent public institutions required financing, and it was natural for the Muslims to pay the zakat and ushr taxes, while the protected non-Muslims paid the kharaj tax. Accordingly, upon his return from Makkah, the Prophet (pbuh) dispatched tax collectors to collect the ushr (one-tenth of the produce). All of the tribes complied, except the Banu Tamim and the Banu al-Mustaliq. The former even attacked the tax collector and threw him out of their area. As a result, several members of the Banu Tamim were arrested and brought to Madinah. The tribe sent an emissary to request their release; however, an argument resulted in the tribesmen accepting their mistake and embracing Islam. So, they were released and allowed to go home.

The Prophet (pbuh) was engaged in creating a security as well as a law and order apparatus when he learned that the Byzantine army was being mobilized to avenge the defeat at Mutah and to destroy the nascent Muslim state that now stood both at the frontiers of the Byzantine and Persian empires. The Prophet (pbuh) immediately decided to meet this challenge head on and deal a lasting blow to the Byzantine menace. Given that the march from Madinah to Sham would require extensive planning and logistics, he sent word to the tribes to raise a formidable attack force and get read to meet the powerful enemy.

At that time, the Muslim population consisted of those who had devoted themselves and all of their possessions completely to God and His Prophet (pbuh), and those who had accepted Islam for material gains (the Munafiqeen). The first group answered the call at once; the other group ridiculed its timing and strategy, as it was the height of summer, and advised each other not to go. In response, God revealed Surat al-Tawba 9:81-82, which stated that the Munafiqeen were merely afraid of the desert heat when Hell was far more severe, that pleasure would be short-lived, and that they would regret their decision later. The Prophet (pbuh) dealt firmly with such hesitant people, and the exemplary punishment meted out to some stabilized many others.

The army was finally assembled and, considering the problems that he had encountered in it mobilization, the Prophet (pbuh) called it the Jaysh al-Usrah – the “hardship army.” In the midst of summer heat, the great Muslim force, which included 10,000 cavalrymen, marched toward Sham. The sight of the magnificent force and the Prophet (pbuh) leading them in the intense heat moved many of the hesitant to race forth and join the march.

The army encamped for a brief watering stop at al-Hijr, where the rock strewn remains of the ancient Thamud people stood. From here, they marched toward Tabuk (630). The Byzantines, having already received intelligence about the Muslims’ movements, withdrew to the hinterland. When the Prophet (pbuh) learned about this move, he stopped at the border and sent a message: either fight or make peace, thereby guaranteeing secure frontiers for the Muslim state. The ruler of Aylah accepted the offer of peace and offered the keys of his island in submission. The Prophet (pbuh) accorded him the due protocol and specified a yearly tax to be paid to the Muslim state. Several other states also followed suit. This bloodless victory discounted the need for any further advance, for now the Muslim state’s frontier as secure.

Upon hearing that the ruler of Dumah was planning to attack once the Byzantine campaign was over, Khalid ibn al-Walid was dispatched to deal with it. The ruler was arrested and brought to Madinah, where he accepted Islam. The Prophet (pbuh) reinstated him as the Muslim governor of the state.

Most of the soldiers among the vast army could not discern the Prophet’s (pbuh) underlying strategy in the various treaties and surrenders that he had negotiated and could not appreciate the long-term benefits of a secure border. Thus, many were wondering why they had been brought all this way in the summer heat, only to return without a fight and the resultant booty.

Upon his return to Madinah, the Prophet (pbuh) dealt with those who had stayed behind. Those who had no valid excuse were severely punished. From now on, he dealt severely with the Munafiqeen, for such people could sow discord. He knew that the Muslim state was spreading so far afield that he could no longer supervise each Muslim. Thus, he had to deal firmly with those who sought to cause trouble among the Muslims.

A group of such Munafiqeen had built a mosque at Dhu Awan, near Madinah, where they used to meet and plot their divisive strategies. Seeking to bestow it with greater authority, they invited the Prophet (pbuh) to dedicate it. But he could not do so at that time, for he was headed for Tabuk. Upon his return, when he learned some more about this group, he immediately ordered that their mosque be destroyed. Soon after this, their leader Abdullah ibn Ubbay fell sick and died. Finally, the Munafiqeen’s power evaporated and they repented and became true Muslims.

After Tabuk, the word of God became supreme throughout the Arabian Peninsula. The Muslim state’s frontiers were secure, and the people of Arabia began to enter Islam in large numbers. This was to be the Prophet’s last campaign. His son Ibrahim was about 18 months old and a source of joy for his father. They had bonded perfectly. This was only natural, for he had lost two sons in their infancy as well as his grown-up daughters, all except Fatima. Amidst this joy, Ibrahim became ill. When the Prophet (pbuh) heard that his son’s condition had deteriorated, he was deeply shocked and almost unable to walk on his own. He took the child in his lap, and that is where his son breathed his last. His sorrowful father buried him.

From the Year of Deputations to the Farewell Pilgrimage

The Tabuk campaign had totally rearranged the peninsula’s political map, and Muslim power stood supreme. These ground realities notwithstanding, some Muslims felt deprived at not being given the chance to fight and reap the fruits of victory. However, the pagans, especially the tribes of southern Arabia, Yemen, Hadhramaut, and Oman, were totally shaken. Seeing the Byzantines withdraw, they saw no new protector in sight. Those who associated others with God were equally apprehensive about their fate. Reasoning that the Byzantines, who had humbled Persia, had now been humbled by the Muslims, these rulers considered that maybe it was time for them to revise their opinion about Islam.

The year 630-31 was the Year of Deputations, when people entered Islam en masse. Among the first such deputation was that of Urwah ibn Mas`ud, a chieftain of Thaqif tribe of Ta’if, whose city had long resisted the Prophet (pbuh). The Thaqif were beholden to the goddess al-Lat, and the Prophet (pbuh) had warned ibn Mas`ud that his people would deeply resent his conversion to Islam. The moment he stood to preach Islam to his people, they killed him. However, most of the neighboring tribes had already accepted Islam, and this murder only added to the Thaqif’s woes.

Finally, a delegation of five leading Thaqifi chieftains traveled to Madinah, and, after long negotiations, offered to convert if they were exempted from the prayers and could keep their favorite al-Lat for 3 years. They even cut it to down to a month, but the Prophet (pbuh) refused to accept any preconditions. Finally, good sense prevailed and they agreed to follow true Islam, establish the prayers, and immediately destroy al-Lat. The Prophet (pbuh) appointed the youngest chief, Uthman ibn Abu al-As, as their leader and gave his some guidelines for establishing the Islamic way of life in his area. He also sent Aby Sufyan ibn Harb and Mughirah ibn Shu`bah with them to destroy the idol. The destruction of al-Lat signaled the Hijaz’s total conversion to Islam and opened the way to expansion in the south. The frontiers of Islam now extended from its border with the Byzantine Empire in the north to Yemen and Hadhramaut in the south.

The delegations continued until the pilgrimage season. Until now, the Prophet (pbuh) had not performed the hajj as we know it today, as all of the previous ones had been performed in extraordinary circumstances. Everyone was looking forward to see if the Prophet (pbuh) would make the pilgrimage, now that victory had been achieved. Instead, he asked Abu Bakr to lead it in his place.

Although the Ka`bah had been cleansed of idols and images, the hajj rites were still not properly stated. The Muslim pilgrimage was unique. The Jewish and Christian pilgrimage to Palestine was understandable, because it was the “promised land” for the Jews and the birthplace of Prophet Jesus for the Christians. Obviously, these two systems of worship could not exist side by side with the Muslim system of worship, for one destroyed idols while the other worshipped them. Therefore, when God revealed that both the Christians and the Jews, due to their association of others with God, could not remain in Makkah during the hajj, the Prophet (pbuh) sent Ali ibn Abu Talib to join Abu Bakr and address the congregation at Arafat. On this occasion, he recited Surat al-Tawba and said that from now all non-Muslims, all of those who associated another deity with God, and all of those who came naked (a pre-Islamic custom) would not be allowed to circumambulate the Ka`bah. This order signaled the founding of the Islamic state.

Surat al-Tawba defines the Islamic state’s foundations. There are reports that the Prophet (pbuh) ordered it to be recited to people individually and in congregation. This surah was revealed after the conversion of the people of Ta’if, Hijaz, Najd, and Tihamah, and of the many southern tribes. Thus, the state’s moral foundation had to be explained to them.

The fight against unbelief was somewhat akin to our own time’s fight against communism, an ideology that negates the freedom of faith and opinion. Similarly, no civilized society allows the flouting of social norms, regardless of the level of freedom of expression, and either bans or restricts certain behaviors considered to be deviant. The Prophet’s (pbuh) struggle against associating others with God involved uplifting humanity by removing people’s mindless worship of sticks and stones, a system that was worse than slavery. The associationists were anathema and had violated the covenant and amnesty concluded between them and the Muslims. Thus, Muhammad (pbuh) called for war against them.

The message of Surat al-Tawba was understood clearly, and soon Yemen, Mahrah, Bahrain, and Yamamah joined the ranks of Islam. A few chieftains persisted in unbelief and even claimed to be prophets, such as Musaylimah ibn Habib. They all died due to sudden illnesses or were disgraced by their former subjects.

The lands of the south were divided between the associationists and the Christians. However, the former converted to Islam and sent their delegations to Madinah to register their allegiance to God and His Prophet (pbuh). In most cases, the Prophet (pbuh) re-appointed the rulers as the new Muslim governors. The message to the People of the Book (the Jews and the Christians) was clear: While they had received God’s revelations, they had defaced them and had, in fact, gone against the teachings of Moses and Jesus. They were assured that they were a degree above the pagans, and would be accepted as subjects by paying a tax (the jizyah) and acknowledging the duties of citizenship.

The post-hajj period saw more delegations visiting Madinah to declare their people’s acceptance of Islam. Soon, the Prophet (pbuh) assigned Mu`adh to teach Islam to the people of Yemen region. The Banu al-Harith Christians of Najran had opted for Islam. However, a few hesitated and the Prophet (pbuh) assigned Khalid ibn al-Walid to go and preach to them. This had the desired effect, and they accepted Islam. Another group was assigned to Ali ibn Abu Talib, but only after fighting with him twice, both times unsuccessfully, did they change their minds, listen to Mu`adh’s lectures, and finally send a delegation to Madinah to register their conversion. This was the last delegation that the Prophet (pbuh) received before his death.

The Prophet, having performed the umrah twice, began to advise his followers to prepare for the hajj. This news spread like wildfire across the peninsula, and thousands upon thousands converged on Madinah for this event, knowing little that it would be last time they would see their beloved Prophet (pbuh). The city received more than 100,000 pilgrims ready to follow their leader to Makkah.

On 25 Dhu al-Qidah 10 a.h. (632), the Prophet set out for Makkah accompanied by his wives and over 100,000 followers. He stopped at Dhu al-Hulayfah, rested, put on the ihram, and then began reciting the talbiyah. In short, he was showing the Muslims how to perform the hajj. As they advanced toward Makkah, filling the air with the talbiyah, they stopped at every mosque along the way in order to pray. When the procession was midway between Makkah and Madinah, the Prophet (pbuh) asked all of those who had not brought a sacrificial animal to perform the umrah only and not the complete hajj.

Upon entering Makkah, he led the procession to the Ka`bah, kissed the Black Stone (Hajr al-Aswad), and then circumambulated the Ka`bah seven times – the first three at trotting pace. He returned to the Santuary of Ibrahim, prayed, went back to the Back Stone and kissed it, and then went to the hills of Safa and Marwah, where he performed the sa’y (jogging seven times between the two hills in remembrance of Hagar’s search for water for her infant son Ismail). After this, he announced that all of those who did not have sacrificial animals should put on their regular clothes, while all of those who had brought their sacrificial animals should sacrifice them and then put on their regular clothes. The first group, as mentioned above, could only perform the umrah. In this group was Fatima, his daughter. Even his son-in-law Ali, who had returned from Yemen and had rushed to join the pilgrimage, was advised to do only the umrah since he had not brought his sacrificial animal. However, the Prophet (pbuh) gave him one of his own animals so that he could perform the hajj.

On 8 Dhu al-Hijjah, the day of al-Tarwiyah, the Prophet (pbuh) led the procession to Mina, where they spent a day and a night and performed all of the prayers for that day. The following day, he took them to Arafat, ascended the mountain as the pilgrims recited the talbiyah and the takbir. He asked his Companions to pitch a tent for him at a spot called Nimrah, and, at the time of the mid-afternoon prayer (`asr), mounted his camel and delivered the Last Sermon.

Due to the large number of pilgrims, a Companion repeated this Last Sermon, known as Khutbat al-Wada’, so that everyone could hear it. Some of its main points are as follows: 

“O People, lend me an attentive ear, for I know not whether after this year I shall ever be among you again. Therefore, listen to what I am saying to you very carefully and take these words to those who could not be present here today. … O People, just as you regard this month, this day, this city as sacred, so regard the life and property of every Muslim as a sacred trust. Return the goods entrusted to you to their rightful owners. Hurt no one so that no one may hurt you. Remember that you will indeed meet your Lord, and that He will indeed reckon your deeds. Allah has forbidden you to take usury (interest). Therefore, all obligations of interest shall henceforth be waived. Your capital, however, is yours to keep. You will neither inflict nor suffer any inequity. …

Allah has judged that there shall be no interest, and that all the interest due to Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (the Prophet’s uncle) shall henceforth be waived. …

“Beware of Satan, for the safety of your religion. He has lost all hope that he will ever be able to lead you astray in big things, so beware of following him in small things. … O People, it is true that you have certain rights with regard to your women, but they also have rights over you. Remember that you have taken them as your wives only under Allah’s trust and with His permission. If they abide by your right, then to them belongs the right to be fed and clothed in kindness. Treat your women well and be kind to them, for they are your partners and committed helpers. And it is your right that they do not make friends with any one of whom you do not approve, as well as never to be unchaste. …

“O People, listen to me in earnest: Worship Allah, say your five daily prayers, fast the month of Ramadan, and give your wealth in zakat. … Perform the hajj if you can afford to. … All of humanity is from Adam and Eve. An Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab, and a non-Arab has no superiority over an Arab. Also, a white person has no superiority over a black person, and a black person has any superiority over a white person, except by piety and good action. Learn that every Muslim is a brother to every Muslim and that the Muslims constitute one brotherhood. Nothing that belongs to a fellow Muslim shall be legitimate to a Muslim, unless it was given freely and willingly. Do not, therefore, do injustice to yourselves. …

“Remember that one day you will appear before Allah and answer for your deeds. So beware, do not stray from the path of righteousness after I am gone. O People, no Prophet or Apostle will come after me, and no new faith will be born. Reason well, therefore, O people, and understand the words that I convey to you. I leave behind me two things: the Qur’an and my example (the Sunnah). If you follow these, you will never go astray. All of those who listen to me shall pass on my words to others and those to others again. May the last ones understand my words better than those who listen to me directly. Be my witness, O Allah, that I have conveyed your message to your people.”

After this sermon, he dismounted and combined the noon (zuhr) and mid-afternoon (`asr) prayers, and then proceeded to al-Sakharat. The Prophet (pbuh), followed by the pilgrims, left Arafat and spent the night at Muzdalifah. In the morning, he visited al-Mashar and then Mina, on the road to which he threw stones at the symbol of Satan (al-Jamarat). When he reached his tent, he sacrificed 63 camels, one for each year of his life, and then shaved his head.

This event is called the Farewell Pilgrimage because this is the last time that he saw Makkah, because he had laid down the hajj as God had completed His religion, and because it was the pilgrimage that announced that he had completed his mission of conveying God’s final message to  humanity.

The Prophet’s (pbuh) Sickness and Death

The pilgrims returned home, and the Prophet (pbuh) and his Companions went back to Madinah. During this period, some false prophets surfaced and found gullible supporters among some of the far-flung tribes. However, this did not bother Muhammad (pbuh) too much. In due course, they were dealt with accordingly and their rebellions were extinguished.

The Prophet (pbuh) now focused his attention on the Islamic state’s northern frontier with the Byzantine Empire, for he wanted to establish a firm Muslim presence that would preclude any threat from Sham. In fact, he was mobilizing an army when he received the news that the Byzantines were about to advance on the northern frontier. He immediately led an army to Tabuk, but once more the Byzantines withdrew. The Prophet (pbuh), still apprehensive, ordered the army to march on Sham. This force, commanded by Usamah ibn Zaid ibn Haritah, aged 23, included such elders as Abu Bakr and Umar. The Prophet (pbuh) told Usamah to approach from al-Balqa and al Durum in Palestine, near Mutah, where his own father had been martyred, to seek the element of surprise in his attacks, to fight in the early hours, and to rain fire upon the enemy. Once victory was achieved, he was to return home quickly.

While the army was preparing to leave on its long journey to Jerusalem, the Prophet fell ill. The preparations were stopped, for no one could leave him when he was so sick, especially the early Companions who had witnessed the rise to the present glory. One night, the Prophet (pbuh) went for a walk, accompanied by his helper, to al-Baqi al-Gharqad. Located near the city’s outskirts, this was the cemetery in which most of the Muslims were buried. He prayed for the dead and then told his helper that God had offered him a choice between this world and Paradise. And, he told his helper, he had chosen the latter. Soon the news of this visit and conversation spread, and the Muslims became concerned about his life.

The next morning, he visited his wives’ quarters as usual. However, while at Maymunah’s house, he felt sick again and walked with great difficulty to Aishah’s quarters. He advised all of his wives and family to attend to him there. He was quite sick and ran a high fever. But when he heard that people were gossiping about his appointment of the young Usamah as commander, he washed, went to the mosque, and explained why he had chosen such a young commander. This silenced the gossip. After that, he ordered all of the mosque’s gates to be shut, except for the one leading to Abu Bakr’s house. He then spoke of this Companion’s good qualities and how dear he was to him, and advised the Muhajireen to be good to the Ansar, who had been their hosts in Madinah. After the sermon, he struggled to walk to Aishah’s house.

The following day, he felt so weak that he asked Abu Bakr to lead the prayers. On another day when Bilal could not find Abu Bakr, Bilal asked Umar ibn al-Khattab to lead the prayer. However, the Prophet (pbuh) insisted upon calling Abu Bakr. This conveyed the message that the Prophet (pbuh) had chosen Abu Bakr as his successor. His daughter Fatima visited him every day. One day she worried as he saw him writhe in pain, and he, hearing her concern, said that he would meet his Lord before the day was over.

Even while on his deathbed, he thought of Islam’s future. Thus, he asked for a scribe and said that he would leave instructions to benefit his followers if they adhered to them. However, Umar ibn al-Khattab advised against this, since the Prophet (pbuh) had already given the people God’s Message. The Prophet (pbuh) ordered that the money earmarked to the poor be given to them. After that, he spent a peaceful night, and felt so good in the morning that he even struggled to the mosque. He sat beside Abu Bakr and prayed as the latter lead the prayer.

The Muslims were so overjoyed at these signs of recovery that Usamah ibn Zayd even sought permission to set out on the campaign against Sham. Also, his Companions ended their vigil and went about on their errands. This was, however, only an interlude of wakefulness before death, and his condition continued to deteriorate after he went home. Finally, he breathed died with his head in Aishah’s lap.

The news of the Prophet’s (pbuh) death shocked the Muslims, and his Companions rushed to his home. Many could not believe that he was dead. In fact, a highly emotional Umar ibn al-Khattab thought that he was in coma, and even announced in the mosque that he would soon return to life. While the grief-stricken Umar was condemning all those who thought that the Prophet (pbuh) had died, Abu Bakr arrived, saw his friend’s corpse, and then rushed to the mosque to address the people. He said: “O people, if you have been worshipping Muhammad (pbuh), know that Muhammad (pbuh) is dead. But if you have been worshipping God, know that God is living and never dies.” He reminded them of Surat Al Imran 3:144, which clearly stated that Muhammad (pbuh) is like all of the prophets who had lived and died before him, and that those who would abandon their faith due to his death would only harm themselves. Usamah, who had been given permission to march, postponed his march to let the troops recover.

After this great shock, the people sought a new leader. The ensuing dispute was quickly solved by Umar, who reminded the people that the Prophet (pbuh) had chosen Abu Bakr to lead the prayers when he fell ill. Soon, those who were present elected Abu Bakr as their new leader. However, Ali and other Muslims were seeing to the Prophet’s (pbuh) burial, and so were not present at these discussions. The following day, when Abu Bakr took his place on the pulpit, Umar stood up and reminded the  people that Abu Bakr was the most qualified person among them and had been the Prophet’ (pbuh) companion in the cave as they made their way toward Makkah. Upon hearing this statement, those people in attendance stood up in agreement. Now Abu Bakr, in his capacity as the first caliph of the Islamic state, said that he had been assigned the job of ruler although he was not the best among them. He asked them to help him if he did his job well and, at the same time, to correct him immediately if he hade a mistake.

After the election, the people gathered to decide upon the Prophet’s (pbuh) burial site. Some favored Makkah, while others favored Jerusalem or Madinah. Finally, they decided to bury him in his adopted city of Madinah, as he had often mentioned that he should be buried where he died, as that is the norm among prophets. His body was washed by his next of kin, led by Ali ibn Abu Talib, and then shrouded. After that, the people were allowed to take one last look. Once the men had seen him, the funeral prayer was performed and the women were allowed to say their farewells.

The Prophet (pbuh) was buried in a corner of his room, past midnight, 2 days after his death on June 8, 632, 10 years after his migration (hijrah) to Madinah. It was a heart-rending experience, especially when this site had until yesterday reverberated with Muhammad’s (pbuh) vitality, mercy, and enlightenment. Aishah continued to live in her quarters, next door to the grave room. When her father Abu Bakr died, he was buried immediately next to him, as was Umar ibn al-Khattab after his death.

Abu Bakr’s first executive act was to order Usamah’s army to leave for Sham. The new commander-in-chief went to see off the army’s departure himself, and requested his general’s permission to keep Umar in Madinah, as he needed his advice on administrative matters. Twenty days later, the Muslim army was victorious at Mutah and returned to Madinah, as advised by the Prophet – Usamah flying the flag that the beloved leader had entrusted to him.

Abu Bakr, in keeping with the Prophet’s (pbuh) guidance that prophets leave no inheritance, transferred his property to the state treasury instead of giving it to his daughter Fatimah, who told him that her father had not willed it to her. Thus he left this world just as he entered it, without material shackles, and left his inheritance to all of humanity: Islam, the religion of truth and goodness. And, this spiritual legacy continues to illuminate the world.